Byzantine Monuments as Cultural Heritage

1. Golden Gate (Altın Kapı)

This gate, which is completely covered with Marmara Peninsula marble, has two towers and three passes, is the most magnificent gate of the Walls of Istanbul. Emperors and commanders, who won victory in Byzantium and entered the city through this gate in pride. The reason why it is called Golden Gate is due to the fact that it was originally adorned with gold gilding at the time. Thus, the door that the victorious emperors and commanders entered the city should have been monumental and adorned with gold. [32] There were also some sculptures and reliefs on the door to increase the magnificence of the door. Apart from an eagle relief seen in the corner of the northern tower, there are no other reliefs or sculptures that have survived to the present day. [15, 18]

The entrance of the gate is inside the grass section of the Yedikule Cemetery. The majesty of the door can be witnessed from the courtyard of the Yedikule Dungeons. Altınkapı was made as a triumphal arch on a bare ground. We can compare it to highway toll gates today. Altınkapı reached its appearance adjacent to the city walls in 413. At the time of Theodosius II, when the land walls were widened, Altınkapı was combined with the walls. Yedikule Gate is about 100 meters from Altınkapı. [8]

Byzantine walls are the most powerful defense system of the Middle Ages. The walls consist of three interconnected sections: A wide ditch on the outside and the dendan following it, the first city wall, the second city wall. Bushes are used as a garrison. There are two passages between the sections. In this defense system: Dendanlı wall ditch protects the first city wall, the dendan wall, and the second city wall protects the first wall. The bushings that support both walls are two-storey, the terraces are crenellated, most of them are rectangular, and the ones that are repaired afterwards have a polygonal plan. [9]

Flashy doors are made on the city walls. Emperor Theodosius II built the Golden Gate as a triumphal arch in 390. Some additions were made in Theodosius time. Governor Anthemiusa added towers next to her and connected them to the city walls, together with the marble towers of the Golden Gate, as a whole in 413. Returning from victory, the emperor was greeted with a ceremony at the Golden Gate. The main gate of the ceremony, the Golden Gate, is on the black walls of Istanbul. The intercity road called Via Egnatia came up to this gate and after crossing the door, one could reach the main street called Mese in the city and the square called Augusteion in front of Hagia Sophia. Moving along the portico road, the emperor used to go to Hagia Sophia before the palace. When looked Golden Gate, Yedikule Fortress stood as the five-tower fortress built behind the gate and it was used as a dungeon during certain periods of Byzantium. Yet it was destroyed during the Fourth Crusade. In 1457, Sultan Mehmet II built the fortress with seven towers. [40, 45]

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2. Valens Aquaduct (Valens Su Kemeri / Bozdoğan Su Kemeri)

The Bozdoğan Aqueduct was completed by Eastern Roman Emperor Flavius ​​Julius Valens in 378 A.D., also known as Valens Aqueduct fort his reason. It is located in Saraçhane region within the borders of Fatih district. This aqueduct is part of a water transport system, all around 250 kilometers One of the largest water channel facilities of the ancient period, it filled the water tanks (countless underground cisterns and outdoor pools) of Constantinople in total. [15, 18]

Valens Aqueduct in Roman Period: Istanbul has been a water shortage throughout history. Especially after becoming the imperial capital, many large public buildings, palaces, population growth and natural baths have increased the need for water. [25]

Constantine Starts, Valens Completes: Emperor Constantine, who is a highly experienced governor himself, has begun to build a aqueduct after he made the city the capital. The start time of the construction is not known exactly. For this reason, it is accepted that there was a date between 306 and 337, when Constantine ruled, historians are sure that he started the construction. Another point they are sure of is that Constantine’s death did not stop to complete the construction and Emperor Valens completed the remaining work. The Romans started to refer to the acqueduct of that period as Valens Aqueduct. [21]

Various additions and maintenance were also made to the arch during the Roman period. Perhaps the most important of these are those made in the Justinian period. Justinian I connected the Bozdoğan Aqueduct to the Binbirdirek Cistern, which came after it with the Basilica Cistern, the largest water reservoir in Istanbul during the Roman period. [1] In addition, Theodosius I had an additional arch built in 328 A.D. after the drought, which seriously affected Constantinople. [9]

Some part of the arch was destroyed during the siege of Avar Turks in 626 in Istanbul. There are two possibilities that are logically realistic. First hypothesis, the acqueduct might have destroyed by the Romans themselves. Thus, they may prevent possible spying activities and the dangers of adding poison to the water. Latter hypothesis, that part of the arch might have been destroyed by the Avars to leave the city without water so as to make the residents surrender them. [8]

About 2 centuries later, Constantine V had the damaged parts of the acqueduct repaired during the drought in 758. Valens Aqueduct saw its last major repair in the 11th century.

This aqueduct, which was neglected during the Catholic Empire, did not regain its importance after 1261, when the invasion ended. Because the population of the entire capital was now in the range of 40,000 – 60,000 (it is estimated that this figure was about 10 times earlier). Valens Aqueduct was not needed to provide water to so few people. As a matter of fact, Mihail Paleologos did not have enough financial resources for the necessary modifications. [25]

After the Conquest of Istanbul, Sultan Mehmet II knew how to take advantage of this structure. He repaired the arch to supply water to the first palace (Old Palace – Gözyaşı Palace) he built in Beyazıt, then Topkapı Palace (Saray-ı Cedit – Yeni Saray) and even added new water resources. It constantly attracted attention during the Ottoman period. As mentioned earlier, Istanbul has become a city that constantly suffers from water problems with high population. So much so that with an edict published in 1768, it was forbidden to build a bath in the city (the last bath built was the Cağaloğlu Bath). The reason was the water shortage. Therefore, the Bozdoğan Aqueduct was either restored or enlarged with additions during the reign of Bayezid II, Suleiman the Magnificent, Mustafa II and Ahmed III. [40]

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3. Basilica Cistern (Bazilika Sarnıcı / Yerebatan Sarayı)

One of the magnificent historical monuments of Byzantium in Istanbul is the Basilica Cistern located in the southwest of Hagia Sophia. Built by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian (527-565), this large underground cistern was named as the “Basilica Palace” among the people because of the marble columns rising from the water. Since there is a Basilica in the place where the cistern is located, it is also known as the Basilica Cistern. [15, 18]

The cistern is a giant building covering a rectangular area of ​​140 meters in length and 70 meters in width. Covering a total area of ​​9,800 square meters, this cistern has a water storage capacity of approximately 100,000 tons. There are 336 columns, each 9 meters high, in this cistern, which is descended by a stone staircase with 52 steps. These columns, erected at intervals of 4.80 meters, form 12 rows, each containing 28 columns. Most of the columns, mostly of which were found to be collected from older structures and carved from various types of marble, consist of a single piece and some of them consist of two pieces. The heads of these columns have different features in places. While 98 of them reflect the Corint style, some of them reflect the Doric style. The vast majority of the columns in the cistern are cylindrical, except for a few of them in angular or grooved form. The ceiling space of the cistern was transferred to the columns by means of arches. The walls of the cistern, which are made of brick, 4.80 meters thick and the floor with brick paved, are plastered with a thick layer of Horasan mortar and made waterproof. [1, 9]

Although the Basilica Cistern, which had a great deal in the lives of the Byzantians in the region, it was used for a while after the Conquest of Istanbul by the Ottomans in 1453 and water was given to the gardens of the Topkapı Palace where the sultans lived. The cistern was not preferred by the Ottomans after establishing their own water facilities in the city since flowing water instead of stagnant water was more suitable in Islamic principles. It was re-discovered by the Dutch traveler P. Gyllius and introduced to the Western world. P. Gyllius, while wandering around Hagia Sophia in one of his studies, found out that the residents in this district drew water from the well-rounded holes in the ground floors of the houses here, and even fished with the buckets hanging down. He entered the cistern with a torch in his hand from the stone-lined courtyard of a wooden building on a large underground cistern, under the stone steps that went underground. P. Gyllius examined the cistern under very difficult circumstances and estimated the heights of columns. Later, when the narration of Gyllius about this cistern got published in his travel book, this hidden Byzantian monument sparked interest among readers and influenced many travelers. [44]

The cistern has undergone various repairs since its establishment. The first repair of the cistern, which was repaired twice during the Ottoman Empire Period, was made by Mehmet Ağa, Architect Kayserili in the time of Ahmet III (1723). The second repair was made during the reign of Sultan Abdulhamid II (1876-1909). In the Republican Period, the cistern was cleaned by Istanbul Municipality in 1987 and opened to visitors by locating a platform above the water fort he visitors to walk. [7]

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4. Columns:

The Column of Constantine (Çemberlitaş)

Çemberlitaş Column or Constantinus (Constantine) Column is located on the Yeniçeriler Avenue, erected in the district called Çemberlitaş today in honor of Emperor Constantine I in 330 A.D. The column, also known as the “Burnt Column” after the damages of fire and “Column with Circle” due to a cage surrounding it, is mounted on a four-step pedestal, connected by rings, and 8 overlapping columns, each weighing 3 tons and 3 meters in diameter. Although it is not proven, it is believed that some items brought here from the tomb of the Prophet Jesus in Jerusalem are burried at the bottom of this column. [3]

Byzantine Emperor Constantine removed this column from the Temple of Apollo in Rome, and erected it in its current location, formerly known as the Forum of Constantine. While there is a statue of Apollo that greets the sun rising over the column, Emperor Constantine put his own statue instead, when it was relocated to Istanbul. [16]

Çemberlitaş Column was also greatly affected by the earthquakes and fires of Istanbul over the time. In 418, one of the lower parts of the column fell and the column was enclosed in iron circles to prevent its collapse. Subsequent fires burned the stones, the spear in the hand of the statue fell in the 542 earthquake, and later some parts of it fell in the 869 earthquake.

The column, which was damaged by lightning during the Nikeforos III Botaniates period (1078-1081), was also damaged by a severe storm during the Alexios I period (1081-1118). Later Emperor Manuel Komnenos (1143-1180) had the monument repaired; also different from its original design, on top of it, he placed a cap in the Corinthian style and a cross of bronze. He also asked an additionally printed inscription surrounding the obelisk all around. [31]

The column also known as the “Monument with Cross” in the last periods of Byzantium, the cross on it was removed after the Conquest of Istanbul in 1453. The monument was renovated for the first time in the Ottoman period in the late 15th century during Selim I (Selim the Grim or Yavuz Sultan Selim) period. In addition, the base of the column is covered with cut stones which function as a sheath of 11 meters in height to protect the monument from natural disasters which was damaged in the past. [50]

Although Sultan Mustafa II (1695-1703) had a column repaired after another fire, the name of “Burnt Stone” given by the public has been transferred to the sources due to the blackening of the stone after undergoing several fires. The circles around the column were renewed again by the order of Abdülhamid I in 1779. [31]

After the 1999 Marmara earthquake, the Çemberlitaş Column received more attention. Researches have been conducted to determine the damage caused by the earthquake and the static state of the column.

In the restoration project started in 2003, some of the dirty surface and cement-based fillings, which have been accumulated for years, have been cleaned. Temporary arbitration circles have been placed in the column with cracks on it to avoid more loss on the original column, and the column has been wrapped with another circle. After a total of seven years of work, the column gained its current appearance.

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5. Columns:

The Column of the Goths (Gotlar Sütunu)

The Column of the Goths, located in the outer garden of Topkapı Palace at the entrance of Sarayburnu of Gülhane Park, is the oldest monument that has survived unchanged from the Roman Empire. Dating to the third or fourth century A.D., it is written in the pedestal part of the column, this column was erected to commemorate the victory of Romans defeating Goths, the victory of Constantine I against the Got tribes in 331-332. Because of this inscription, the column was called the Column of Goths. [19]

Its height is 18.5 meters, made of Prokonnessos marble in a single block. The capital of column is decorated with an eagle coat of arms in Corinthian style. The name of the column comes from an abbreviated Latin inscription on its base: FORTUNAE REDUCI OB DEVICTUS GOTHOS (“To Fortuna, who returns by reason of victory over the Goths”), which has been shown to have replaced an earlier Latin inscription. [28]

According to Prof. Dr. Semavi Eyice, this column belongs to Theodosius I (379-395), who fought against the Goths, and the letter shapes in the inscription are related to the period of Constantinus I (324-337). According to this view, it is assumed that it was built in the 4th century. Rising on a high base with three steps, the column is made of solid marble and is 15 meters long. Some traces on its head in Corinthian style suggest that there was presumably an eagle figure. There are also reliefs on the base of the column. The column seems to be hidden among the tall trees that surround the garden today. [19]

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6. Columns:

The Column of Marcian (Markianos Sütunu / Kıztaşı)

The Column of Marcianwas erected in Forum Amastrion by Emperor Marcianus in 450 A.D. It is one of the few monumental columns from the Roman period. The work, which gave its name to Kıztaşı Mahallesi, one of the first Turkish neighborhoods established after the conquest, is actually a monument column erected by the Roman Emperor Marcianus in 452 or 457 BC. He stayed in the garden of one of the Janissaries’ single rooms in Saraçhane for a long time and was reappeared at the beginning of the last century (after a fire).

It is made in two pieces of red-gray Egyptian granite. Its base is four sided and is made of white marble. The medallions on all three sides are decorated with Greek crosses. Due to the presence of the Nike statue on its base, it is known as the Kıztaşı among the people. There is also an inscription on the western face of his woman. The following text is written in Latin in the inscription:

PRINCIPIS HANC STATVAM MARCIANI CERNE TOVUQVE

PRAEFECTVS VOVIT QVOD TATIANVS OPVS

“Behold this statue of the princeps Marcian and its base,

a work dedicated by the prefect Tatianus.” [28]”


There is a Corinthian capital on the column. The title is likely to be the pedestal of one of Emperor Markianos’ sculptures. It is said that the bronze statue of Emperor Marcanius on the column was taken to Bari from Istanbul by Venetians in the 13th century and it is said to be the statue of Barletta that is present there.

The Turkish name Kıztaşı, “the column of the girl” (kız: “girl” + taş: “stone”), apparently derives from a narration based on the genie. [44] According to the legend occurred among the Romans, when a girl with a talismanic power carried a large column to the construction of Hagia Sofia, a genie approaches the girl and asks her where she is taking the stone. When the girl tells the genie that she is carrying it for the construction, this spiritual being tells that she is late and should not carry the stone in vain. Believing the genie, the girl leaves the stone on the spot and comes to the construction site to see the situation. Realizing that the genie was lying to her, she goes back to Saraçhane to carry the stone, but finds out that her magic powers are no longer working. This stone has been referred to as “Kıztaşı” since that day. [19]

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7. Hagia Irene Church / Hagia Eirene (Aya İrini Kilisesi)

Dedicated to the “Peace of God,” this church is one of the three shrines together with Hagia Sophia (Wisdom) and Hagia Dynamis. This monument stands on the site of a pre-Christian temple. It ranks as the first church completed in Constantinople, before Hagia Sophia, during its transfiguration from a Greek trading colony to the eastern capital of the Roman Empire. [25] [The semi-dome of the apse and the arch of bema are covered with mosaics. Frescoes can be found on the south side aisle. Throughout its history, the building served many purposes as being an arsenal in the Ottoman period and a concert hall in the contemporary Turkish Republic era. It takes its name from a young girl named Penelope, who belongs to a noble Persian family, whose name will later be called Hagia Eirene or Azize Irene. [6]

Although Rome officially accepted Christianity as a religion with the Edict of Milan (313) and the emperor was also Christian, some of the Roman people with a polytheistic belief rejected monotheism. According to some The young girl named Penelope was trying to spread Christianity, which was the true religion of that period, among the Romans in Constantinople in 330s. However, the Romans humiliated Penelope and insulted her. The advocates of the old paganist religions, who could not afford this brave young woman who had served religion without resentment against these insults and sufferings, resorted to crude force. According to them, Penelope would save her life if she abandoned her creed. They threatened her first with torture and then persecution. Upon her denial, she was thrown to a well full of snakes, and when they arrived the next day, Penelope was still alive. The snakes never touched her. Pagans declared this as magic, accused Penelope of witchcraft, and pelted her stones. However, the stones did not harm Penelope. It is not known how long they stoned; but since it had no effects on her, they tied her to the abandonment and started dragging her in the streets of Constantinople. According to rumors, that many of those who witnessed that she was still alive after all, were willingly converted and accepted Christianity. After that, Christianity spread rapidly in Constantinople and peace and security were established in the city. After some famous riots of Roman history, peace and tranquility had become to prevail. Upon this, Emperor Constantine named Penelope as Hagia Eirene or Hagia Irene (Saint Irene), meaning “Holy Peace”. [14]

Constantine, when rebuilding the city, besides a forum, palace and hippodrome, he built the first church in Constantinople in Constantinople by building the first church in Constantinople in the 330s on the Roman temples of the ancient paganist Temple of Jupiter. Hagia Irene Church is the only church with atrium left from Byzantium to the present day. The atrium is a courtyard with a portico in the middle of the ancient Roman temples. Hagia Irene has brought the features of the temple which has replaced to date, but today Hagia Irene is the third church like Hagia Sophia. The first wooden Hagia Irene burned in 532 due to the Nika Revolt during the reign of Justinian I and was rebuilt by Justinian as the Orthodox Patriarchate. Hagia Irene was burnt and repaired once again in 564 during the Justinian period. [1] Severe earthquakes in the 8th and 9th centuries caused significant damage to the building. Hagia Irene, which the Byzantines called the patriarchate chapel, remained in Sur-ı Sultani, which surrounded the Topkapı Palace after the Conquest of Istanbul, and it remained intact since it was not converted into a mosque. [34]

The structure consists of atrium, narthex, three nave naos and apse. It is a typical Byzantine structure with its material and architecture. In accordance with the art architecture of its period, it is in the style of Roman Basilica in 32 × 100 meters. The interior area has a rectangular plan. It has two side corridors and one central hall following the narthex. The apse of the work (the part where religious ceremonies take place) is covered with a half dome.

In the Ottoman period, the building happened to be located within the borders of Topkapı Palace, yet the monument was not turned into a mosque to avoid any chaos at entrance of the courtyard. Otherwise, it would have been hard to maintain order among large crowd in Friday and feast prayers in the first courtyard reached after entering through the door of Bab-ı Hümayun.

Later Damat Ahmet Fethi Pasha, who was one of the Tophane clients in the building, decided this was used as the weapon warehouse of the Ministry of War. These weapons were exhibited here in 1846. The weapons gathered from various parts of the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Ahmet III were collected in two different sections under the names Mecma-i Esliha-i Atika (Ancient Weapons Collection) and Mecma-i Asar-ı Atika (Ancient Works Collection). In 1869, Hagia Irene was renamed Museum-i Humayun (Imperial Museum). Over time, these weapons were moved to the Çinili Pavilion in 1875 due to the insufficient exhibition spaces. Since 1908, Hagia Irene served as a Military Museum until 1949. In the studies carried out between 1974-76, the soil fillings around the area were removed to reduce moisture. Since 1973, it has hosted many art events, especially within İKSV. [11]

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8. Saint Sophia / Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya)

Hagia Sophia is one of the greatest surviving epitomes of Byzantine architecture. Its interior is decorated with mosaics and marble pillars of great artistic value. The temple itself was so richly and artistically decorated that Justinian proclaimed, “Solomon, I have outdone thee!” (Fazio)

Architectural elements include narthex and portals, where the Imperial Gate was the main entrance between the exo- and esonarthex. This Gate was reserved exclusively for the Emperor and the Byzantine mosaic above the portal depicts Christ and an unnamed emperor; upper gallery, in a horseshoe form was an area traditionally reserved for the Empress and her court with the best-preserved mosaics in the southern part of the gallery; the dome, the largest pendentive dome in the world until the completion of St. Peter’s Basilica, with a much lower height than any other domes of such a large diameter. [34]

According to historian Socrates, the first church built here on February 15, 360 A.D. was a basilica and was built on an ancient Roman temple. The second, made in place of the basilica burning in 404, it was reopened to worship on October 10, 415 during the Theodosios II period. In the same year, the construction of Hagia Sophia was initiated by the order of Emperor Iustinianos (Justinian), yet the church was completely burned in the famous “Nika Revolt” on January 13, 532. [1] According to the historian Prokopios, one hundred foreman, one thousand masters and ten thousand men worked in the construction of the church, which was built by Isidoros of Miletos and Anthemios of Tralles. The construction of Hagia Sophia was completed in 5 years, 10 months and 24 days with ships full of construction materials brough from Syria, Egypt, Greece and Asia Minor. Coming with the patriarch Menas to the opening ceremony on December 27, 537, the emperor could not help but say the following about the beauty of the building in awe: “Thank God for giving me the chance to build such a church.” [20]

For this monument, Justinian invited the most famous architects to Istanbul to build Hagia Sophia and asked them to draw a draft for the church he would build. [12] However, any draft presented to the emperor did not satisfy him. Frustrated with disaapointment, according to the narration, Justinian, fell asleep one night and had a dream about his dream shrine: An old man, who appeared on the land where Hagia Sophia was to be established, was looking to his left and right, and then he stood and waited a little in every corner. This strange old man approached to Justinian, when the Emperor immediately started praying to the god and was surprised when he saw the silver plate in his hands. The church picture drawn on the plate was the temple the Emperor actually dreamed of: the old man said, “Take this picture Justinian, make your church according to this example!”. When the Emperor asks what should he name the temple with joy, “Hagia Sophia” says the strange old man with a face of light and disappears instantly. Upon this dream, the Emperor calls his architect the next morning and asks him to describe the picture of the temple in his dream. The architect, who extended the drawing of the church he designed to the Emperor stating that he had a dream of the plan of the church that night working until the morning and putting it down on paper. Hagia Sophia is the church in these dreams. [26, 30]

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9. Pammakaristos Church (Fethiye Camii, Eski İmaret Camii / Eski Imaret Mosque / Eski İmaret Camii)

Pammakaristos Monastery is the third most important church in Istanbul, Çarşamba, surviving the Byzantine period after Hagia Sophia and Kariye. It was “Pammacaristos Virgin Mary”, that is, “the very happy Virgin Mary”. The foundation of the building, which currently consists of two separate sections as a mosque and a museum, was founded in the 11th century by Michael VII. It was thrown by Dukas and built, according to an inscription that does not exist today, John II of Komnenos Dynasty, who moved from the Main Palace to Blachernai Palace. [28] It was completed by Ioannis Komnenos and his wife Anna Doukaina. This is place where the dynasty members Alexius Komnenos I and his daughter Anna were buried here. [34]

At the time of the Emperor Michael VIII in the 13th century, it was reconstructed and reconstructed by Palaeologos’ nephew, General Michael Glabas Ducas Tarchaniotes. Michael Glabas is an aristocrat who commanded the Byzantine army and won numerous victories, especially against the Bulgarians. Glabas, known for his piety and especially with the help of the poor, chose to become a priest when he retired and restored the building with his wife, Maria Glabas. After her husband died, Maria had the side tomb chapel built in the church and turned it into a monastery. With the death of Maria, the sarcophagi of both Michael and Maria were placed in this tomb chapel. The chapel with its unique mosaic samples constitutes the museum part of Pammakaristos Monastery.

The building was constructed with a cross plan in accordance with the early Byzantine architecture and consists of a main corridor, two side halls, three abscissa and a narthex in the west. The inner walls were built with built-in brick, a technique that was accepted during the Komnenos period. In this technique, brick components were mounted behind the wall line and immersed in a cistern mortar bed, which can still be seen underneath.

On the other hand, the south chapel is one of the best examples of late Byzantine architecture. It has a typical square plan with five domes, but the ratio between the vertical and horizontal dimensions is much larger than normal. There is a dome of 2.3 meters on the side hall. The outer walls are made of stone and brick according to architecture. On the south side there is an inscription stating that it was built by Glabas, and a marble slab has a poem. A high pulley dome with 12 windows opened around the four large columns in the middle space. This dome with a diameter of 5 meters is carried by four pendants that sit on four arches. The dome pulley is decorated with stepped arches and wavy saw-toothed brick cornices that ride on thin outer column bundles from the outside.

The cistern below the apse and the nave of the monastery seems to have come before its construction, and perhaps it has formed a void of an older building. It is 7 × 3 meters wide and has 12 columns with Corinthian capitals. Other cisterns are placed around the monastery and one of them is located on the terrace wall in the south of the church. It is about 22 × 7 meters and contains two rows of seven columns.

The mosaics in the building are similar to those of the Kariye Museum mosaics, and the mosaics in the South Church are dated to the 14th century. In the middle of the dome of this small building, the Pantocrator Jesus is depicted on a golden background. There is a halo at the beginning of Jesus, a silver cross inside. While holding a consecration sign with his right hand, he holds the Bible in his left hand. Inside the dome, which is divided into twelve sections, there is a depiction of prophets, referring to the apostles. These prophets are Moses, Jeremiah, Sefenya, Mika, Yoel, Zechariah, Ovadya, Habakkuk, Yunus, Malachi, Ezekyel, and Isaiah. Each holds a scroll containing a verse heralding the coming of Christ. [4]

The apse has a Deesis scene, which is the busts of the four angels. Jesus is seated on a throne without his right hand, extended in an all-inclusive blessing, decorated with jewels. Framing the image of Jesus, the epigram states that General Michael Glabas Ducas Tarchaniotes’ wife, Maria, proposed a chapel to save her husband on behalf of her husband. Virgin Mary and John the Baptist are placed on the side walls of the apse. They both raise their hands to intercede for humanity. The four archangels above Jesus are Michael, Rafael, Gabriel and Uriel. [4]

In the Ottoman Pediod, this shrine came to be known as the ‘Fethiye Mosque’ in honor of the victory of Georgia and Azerbaijan during the Murat 3rd period. The conversion of the monastery into a mosque has drastically changed the original building. The apse part of the church was demolished by a palace architect, Daldi Ahmet, and a domed room with a mihrab was added to the building. In addition, a madrasah was annexed to the west side of the mosque by Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha, surrounding the courtyard in three directions. With this madrasah, which surrounds the courtyard in the form of a “U”, Fethiye Mosque has become an example of the type of mosque of the courtyard of the 16th century architecture.

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10. Hagia Theodosia / Gül Mosque “The Mosque of the Rose” (Gül Camii)

Hagia Theodosia Church, today’s Gül Mosque, is located in Ayakapı, on Yavuz Sultan Selim District Foundation School Street. There are different opinions about the first construction of the church. According to the Byzantine historian J. Pargoire, it was built here on a church that existed before, in the period of Basileios I (867-886) after Ayia Eufemia. Theodosia died during the Iconoclasm period (726-842) while trying to prevent the lowering of the Jesus icon on the Khalke gate of the Great Palace, and was later promoted to the saint. After the saint was buried in this church, those who wanted to recover from their illnesses were visited by pilgrims and travelers who came to Byzantium. [34]

Built on a high hill, like a fortress, Theodosia Church has a closed Greek cross plan and a cellar. This cellar, according to a rumor, was used as the graves of Hagia Theodosia and some of the notables of the Byzantine emperor dynasty. According to another rumor, two of Jesus’ disciples were buried here. In addition, this crop is said to have been connected to the nearby Hagia Nikola Church and a number of other points from underground with a few passages currently closed.

According to the narration, on the day when the Turks conquered Istanbul, they found the building with roses due to the festival of Theodosia which was named Gül for this reason. According to another narration, the building was named after the fact that an investment named Gül Baba was burried inside the mosque. According to another, the mosque, which was repaired at the time of Murat IV, was named Gül because the dome and its surroundings were like roses. [5, 7]

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11. Little Hagia Sophia Mosque / The Church of the Saints Sergius and Bacchus (Küçük Ayasofya Camii)

This monument is a former Greek Eastern Orthodox church dedicated to Saints Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople, converted into a mosque during the Ottoman Empire.

Little Hagia Sophia Mosqueis located in Eminönü district, between the Cankurtaran and Kadırga districts, about 20m from the southern part of the Marmara walls. Little Hagia Sophia Mosque, formerly the oldest structure of Istanbul today, or Saint Sergius and Bacchus church, was built between 527-536 before the reign of Justininian I. According to the narration about the construction of the building, during the reign of Anastasius I, Justininian I and his uncle Justinos I were sentenced to death for their rebellion against Emperor Anastasyus. The night before the sentence was fulfilled, double saints Saint Sergius and Bacchus entered the dream of Emperor Anastasius and testify in favor of Justinos I and Justininian I. The Emperor, who was affected by this event, spared their lives. When Justininian ascended to the throne and became emperor, he built the Saint Sergius and Bacchus church as the votive church to pay the debt of gratitude to the double saints. [29, 13]  

The building is one of the typical examples of the first period Byzantine churches in the capital Constantinople. There is a narthex part to the west of the irregular rectangular church, and a semi-hexagonal apse part to the east. The octagonal planned middle space, located inside the irregular rectangle, has been expanded with semicircular niches called exedra in the corners. Two columns are placed between the corners of this middle space and a space integrity is provided between the middle space and the apse. [24]

On the central space, there is a 16-section dome that is carried by eight large legs in the corners. Eight of these sections are flat and eight are concave, and in the lower parts, which are under the effect of tensile stresses in straight sections. Arch-shaped windows are opened to remove this effect. The corridors that provide the transition from the middle to the rectangular form pass through the vaults and take the form of a gallery on the upper floor. On the gallery floor, the top of the exedra was crossed with half domes carried by three arches. [34]

In the period when the church was built, it is believed that the interior walls were decorated with mosaics. However, there is no evidence confirming this today, the inner surface of the structure is completely plastered. The only adornment of the Byzantine period in the building is an architrave consisting of grape bunches and leaf motifs with a very fine workmanship at the gallery floor level around the middle space. Accordingly, it is claimed that the temple was built in the name of the wine god Bakus during the idolatry period and that the name Bacchus came from here. [15]

According to the sources, the first damage in the building and accordingly the first repair occurred after the iconoclasm movements in the 9th century. Of course, after 1204 Latin invasions, interior decorations had to be repaired. [2]

During the conversion of the building to the mosque in 1504 by Kapu Ağası Hüseyin Ağa, all the interior decorations of the building were changed and some sections specific to the mosque were added, including a minbar to the southeast, a muezzin shaft to the northwest, and a mosque to the west in front of the west wall, depending on the Ottoman architectural features. Many windows of different sizes were opened and some of the existing windows were closed.

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12. Theotokos Kyriotissa Church / Kalenderhane Mosque (Akataleptos Manastırı Kalenderhane Camii)

According to the narration, the Akataleptos Monastery, known as the Kalenderhane Mosque or the Old Imaret Mosque, was built by the Komnenos dynasty in the 9th or 10th century. Its plan and style features represent one of the few examples of the Greek cross arched Byzantine church. It is first mentioned in a document in 1094.

The first structure of the monastery, located to the south of the eastern end of the Bozdoğan Aqueduct in the Vefa district, was the Roman bath. Following the sixth century, as a church dedicated to God Kyriotissa and his mother, the large dome and semi-domes under the name “Theotokos Kyriotissa” appearred around the Bozdağan Aqueduct. Later, considering the stone and marble workmanship, a larger church was built in the south of the first church in the 7th century. A third church was used again as a sacred place. The main apse and outer narthex sections of the existing church were re-erected. The semi-domes were later added towards the end of the 12th century during the Commenian period, and the church was surrounded by monastic structures. But they were completely destroyed by the Ottomans. During the Latin Invasion of Istanbul, the building served the Italians as a Roman Catholic church in the form of a Dominican monastery, and St. Francis Assisi was decorated with one of the oldest known fresco cycles. The building remained today as the Catholic church. [34]

The structure has a typically Middle Byzantine brickwork with alternating layers of brick and stone masonry. [46] Surmounted by a dome with 16 ribs, the building has a central Greek cross plan with deep barrel vaults over the arms. The main space is entered from the narthex covered with vaults. The center of the main space has a pendant dome, and this main dome is supported by cradle vaults, and the ceiling cover is uncovered. [24]

After the Conquest of Istanbul in 1453, the church was given to the Kalenderi dervishes by Mehmet II. Dervishes used this place as a madrasa. Since then, it has been known as the Kalenderhane (Kalender House). In the 18th century, Babüssaade (palace) was converted into a mosque by Ağa Maktul Beşir Ağa. The mosque, which was damaged by fire and earthquake, was restored in 1854. [40] Lightning fell to the minaret of the Kalenderhane Mosque in 1930 and was abandoned due to the collapse. Between 1966-1975, it was the subject of a research and excavation carried out in collaboration with Harvard University and Istanbul Technical University. It was restored and opened to worship in 1968. There are wall remains in the courtyard of the mosque, which were included in the building in the early days of the church, but now collapsed and became ruined. [43]

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13. Chora Church / Khora (Kariye Camii)

The monument, known as the Kariye Museum, is a church building that was the center of the Khora monastery. It was a large building complex during the Eastern Roman Empire, dedicated to Jesus. The name “Khora”, which means “Rural area” or “Out of town” in Greek, was deemed appropriate for the building because it was outside the walls of Konstantinos. [35]

Although the exact construction date of the building is unknown, according to the narration of the writer Aziz Symeon Metaphrastes, who lived in the late 10th century, Aziz Babylas, who was martyred in the early periods of Christianity in 298 and in Nikomedia (Iznik) with his 84 disciples, was buried here at the beginning of the 4th century. As understood, the region where the Khora monastery is located has started to gain importance as a sacred cemetery area (necropol). The Khora monastery was rebuilt in 536 at the site of a chapel that was ruined by Emperor Justinian I (527-565) in this sacred cemetery area in the 6th century. [1] According to an unproven claim by Manoil Gedeon on the 229th page of the Byzantine festival, the monastery was used in the 6th century by Theodoros, the uncle of Theodora’s wife, but it was destroyed by the earthquake on October 6, 557 before it was finished. He built a great monastery. Later, the monastery was used as the burial area of ​​important people. With the burial of Patriarch Germanos who died in 740, the monastery was included in written sources for the first time. [38]

It is known that the great earthquake in 1296 ruined the monastery. Patriarch Athanasios I, who lived in Khora Monastery in the early 14th century, mentions that the monastery was in a very bad condition. At the time of Andronikos II (1282–1328), although the empire was generally in poverty, it was in a rich aristocratic community that supported art and science. During this period, Theodoros Metokhites built the Khora Monastery almost from the scratch and built a huge and rich library in the monastery. The main dome of the church, the two-storey annex adjacent to the north, the inner and outer narthexes and the additional chapel in the south, as well as the marble covering plates and mosaics of the naos, the mosaic decoration of the narthex and the frescoes of the additional chapel were built by Metokhites. [24, 39]

Mosaics: Theodoros Metokhites worked to teach the history of religion to future generations. Metokhites, who wanted to convey this to her students with mosaic art, made a “History of Prophets” presentation in Kariye.

Entry mosaics: The first mosaic at the entrance of the church (the entrance of the museum is made from the garden entrance at the back) is the “Pantocrator (omnipotent) Jesus” located in the lunette on the inner narthex door. In this depiction, while Jesus holds the holy book with his left hand, he makes a sign of consecration with his right hand. This scene describes the glory and divinity of Jesus, who looks like the “Lord of the Universe”. “Prophet Jesus, the place of life” and “Khora” are written on both sides of Jesus’ head. The concept of golden ratio (proportion of eye order) was given to the mosaic before Leonardo da Vinci, by making Jesus’ left ear higher than the right ear and giving a more deformed image to the left side of his face. [33]

In the upper arch of the main entrance, Virgin Mary is depicted in the type of Blachernitissa. In the center, Mary opened her arms sideways, praying. The first example of this posture of Mary belongs to an icon in Blakhernai Palace. Child Jesus is depicted in a medallion on the chest of Mary. This illustration symbolizes that Mary’s heart is greater than the universe. There is a depiction of two angels placed on the edges of the vault. In the mosaic depiction, the word “Khora” is written around Mary, “Mother of God, the place of those who can not fit anywhere.”

Above the exterior of the main entrance door, there is a scene where Theodoros Metokhites sitting on a throne, completes the construction of the church and presents the model of the church. On the back of Theodoros Metokhites is the inscription “founder, treasury official Theodoros Metokhites”. “Jesus Christ, the place of the living” is written on both sides of Jesus. [28]

Naosa (main building) passage door is shown on the left panel, and Peter Petrus, one of the first believers in Jesus, was depicted holding a roll of writing in his right hand while holding the keys of heaven with his other hand. The name is written on both sides of his head.

Naosa passage gate, Apostle St. Pavlos from Tarsus on the right panel, is shown from the front. While holding the holy book in his left hand, he makes a sign of consecration with the other hand. The name is written on both sides of his head. [22, 23]

Naos mosaics: On the western wall of Naos, there is Virgin Mary lying on the sarcophagus covered with fabrics in the scene of the Death of Mary, a crowd of apostles, church leaders and women from Jerusalem. In the gray ground (spiritual side), Jesus holds the baby, representing the spirit of Mary, in her lap covered with her hands as an expression of respect. The angels around Jesus in the gray ground and the six-winged angel Serafim (the highest angel according to the Jewish and Christian traditions) brought the stage to the stage with wings open at the top. [22, 23]

Contrary to what is known, depiction of Seraphim was first seen in Khora, not in Hagia Sophia. In the background, beside the architectural structure, two angels are waiting to take the soul of Mary, who is in the lap of Jesus. While Peter is waving the censer in his hand at the head of the Virgin Mary, Pavlos leaning towards Mary looks at him with a sad expression. “Death of the Mother of God” is depicted at the top of the stage. [22, 23]

In this scene, called “Mary of Hodegetria” (Guiding) in a marble frame on the south templon panel of Naos, Mary carrying Child Jesus on her lap is depicted. In the depiction, Mary was illustrated looking down at the Child Jesus in her lap, by slightly tilting her head. There is a marble panel embroidered with acanthus on the stage, the relief of the destroyed pantocrator Jesus in the middle, and the relief of two angels with wings in the upper corners. It is believed that the icon, which is the same as this scene and believed to be the protector of Constantinople was hiding in Khora and protecting the city during the war days. [22, 23]

In the northern templon panel, Jesus standing, holding an open Bible in his left hand, depicted from the front is depicted. The Bible says, “O all the weary and heavy ones, come to me and I will give you comfort” (Matthew Bible 11: 28). A large part of this mosaic panel was also cast. Angel figures and rosettes on the sides of the marble gussets on the bottom two corners of the panel are engraved as relief, but are rather distorted. [22, 23]

Interior narthex mosaics: In the dome in the southern part of the inner narthex, there is the depiction of “Pantocrator Jesus” in the medallion. There are figures of the ancestors of Jesus in two rows between the sections of the dome. At the top, starting from Adam, there are ancestors of Jesus such as Noah, Kenan, Jared, Lamek, Sham, Heber, Saruk, Nachor, Thara, Ibrahim, Isaac, Jacob, Phalec, Ragau, Enos and Abel depicted. [41]

There is the depiction of Mary and Child Jesus in the medallion on the dome surface in the northern part of the inner narthex. Monograms on both sides of Mary’s head means “Mother of God”. The medallion in the middle part is divided into 16 sections. In these sections, there are sixteen Jewish king figures from the lineage of King David, the ancestors of Mary.

These 16 king prophets at the top; These are portraits of David, Solomon, Rehoboam, Abia, Asa, Jehoshafat, Joram, Azariah, Jotham, Ahaziah, Hezekiah, Manasseh, Amon, Josiah, Jeconiah and Shealtiel. In the lower part, respectively; Figures from Hananiah, Azariah, Michael, Daniel, Joshua, Moses, Aaron, Hur, Samuel, Job, and Melchizedek. Mosaics covering all other parts of the inner narthex cover the part from the birth of Mary to the birth of Jesus and will not be explained here because it is too long. [22, 23]

External narthex mosaics: The mosaics in the outer narthex completely describe the life and miracles that Jesus has shown since his birth.

Parecclesion mosaics: The apse, which defines the eastern end of the churches, is the most important place of religious structures in terms of liturgy and church symbolism. Chora parecclesion was a rectangular structure, from west to east, strengthened by the dome and dome vault, the rhythmic arrangement of the semi-dome of the apse and the order of martyrs on the lower walls, and its longitudinal effect was dominant.

All the frescoes of the chapel were built by Theodoros Metokhites between 1320 and 1321, immediately after the completion of the mosaics in the nave and narthex, except those in the grave arcosolia. Frescoes and portraits that adorn the walls of the tomb arcosolium were added when their owners were buried in these tombs.

This is the section with the “History of the Prophets”. The important events of Jacob, Muses, Solomon, Isaiah, Aaron and their sons are explained along with the duties of Michael, the establishment and rescue of Jerusalem, and Martyrs Saints. In the section, the mosaics with Armageddon, Appeal, Intercession, the Last Judgment and Resurrection are displayed as artistic masterpieces. [22, 23]

It is useful to mention a few details that amaze the visitors in the museum. First, there is a fossil of a sea creature that lived millions of years ago on the marble plate on the side wall of the parecclesion place of the museum. Surprisingly, the formation of fossils in marble is scientifically impossible. The second detail is the presence of a history written in Arabic numbers in the building behind the earthen jars, in the mosaic of “Kana wedding miracles” in the outer narthex hall. The third detail is the use of “6-fold perspective” art, which is believed to have emerged with the Renaissance in the mosaic of “The Death of Mary” all over the world. [22, 23]

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14. Palace of the Porphyrogenitus / Blachernae Palace (Tekfur Sarayı / Blekhernai Sarayı)

The Blakhernai / Vlaherna Palace complex was built on the terraces of a steep slope descending towards the Golden Horn. It was adjacent to the walls to the west. The only building remaining from this palace complex is Tekfur Palace, a pavilion of the palace. Tekfur is the name given to the Byzantine local governor, “Tekabur” meaning Armenian king.

The walls built by Constantine the Great in the 4th century stretched from the front of Tekfur Palace to the Anemas Dungeons. These walls were called Blakhernai Walls. In the 5th century, these walls were connected to the Golden Horn Walls.

Blakhernai Palace complex was built at the end of the 11th century. In the 12th century, foreign guests were hosted in both the Grand Palace and the Blakhernai Palace. They were shown a palace treasure, a tour showing their triumphal arch, and taken to races at the Hippodrome. Christian guests were taken to Hagia Sophia, and relics that were hidden in the chapels of the Grand Palace were opened. [24]

In this complex, Blakhernai Church and Holy Spring is a Byzantine church built in the 4th century. Many Virgin Mary icons were made here. Blakherniotissa Mary, in Byzantine painting, is the scene where Mary is shown while praying with both hands open. Emperor Heraklios (610-641) built an additional city wall to protect the Blakhernai Church from the Avars. A Blakhernai Gate was opened there (in the Fourth Crusade, the Latins destroyed this gate and invaded the city. This gate and its protection walls were destroyed in 1868. It was believed that this icon prevented Avars from occupying the city in 626. Beginning in the 11th century, these icons began to accompany the emperors and military units. While these icons were hidden in the church, they were covered with veils. In the selection of the location of the Blakhernai Palace complex, the holy spring inside the church was effective. It is thought that the emperor who came to visit was built here to rest. The palace was probably connected to the church by stairs. The water of spring is still flowing today. The building is from the 19th century. It was also restored as a result of the fire in the middle of the 20th century.

The Balat Gate (Palati Synegii), one of the doors of the Blakhernai Palace, has not survived. Located between Değirmenkapı and İncili Köşk; The prison, sometimes the prison for the imperial family, and sometimes the place where they were killed, was destroyed after the construction of the Blakhernai Palace. Not much remains from the Mangana Palace until today.

White kufeki stone and brick were used in the wall masonry of the palace. The difference between the wall knitting technique applied on the lower and upper floors leads to the comments that the building was built in two different periods. The decoration on the building facade shows the last period feature. There are two more floors on the ground floor opening to the courtyard with columnar arches. As estimated, the intermediate floors are separated from each other by wood. The third floor of the palace is on the walls.

The upper and lower floors are used by the service personnel. If the emperor used this palace, it is thought that he was sitting in the middle floor. There is a ruin of another 14th century mansion adjacent to Tekfur Palace. A door in the courtyard of the palace, according to historian Dukas, is believed that monks opened this door to the Ottoman, the city was occupied by soldiers entering through this door, he writes. The only person making this claim is Dukas.

The palace is thought to have a balcony on the east side facing the city. In the Istanbul painting of Piri Reis, this place is shown with a double sloping roof covering it and the balcony on the adjacent tower and its protecting porch.

The Ottomans never used this palace as a palace. In 1719, the products of the tile workshop established by Grand Vizier Damat İbrahim Pasha to Iznik masters are referred to as Tekfur Palace tiles. The tiles of the Third Ahmet Fountain, Kasım Pasha Mosque and Hekimoğlu Mosque are produced here.

The palace was once given to Jews and became a Jewish house (the apartment where Jews live together). Europeans perceived the building to be given to the Jews as an insult and an expression of Byzantine hatred of the Ottomans. It was devastated by a fire in 1864, and the floor collapsed. In the 19th century, the north of the palace became a glass factory, the factory was closed in 1955 and connected to the Hagia Sophia Directorate.

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15. The Prison of Anemas (Anemas Zindanları)

Anemas Dungeon and tower were built in Blakhernai Wall. The commander named Anemas, who rebelled during the reign of Alexios Komnenos I, was the first person to be closed here in 1107 and it was named after him. It has 14 cells. Emperors and high-ranking prisoners were imprisoned here. The cellars and the towers of the city walls, which are understood to belong to the Blakhernai Palace built during the Komnenos period, form a large complex.

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16. The Museum of Great Palace Mosaics (Büyük Saray Mozaikleri Müzesi)

The Great Palace Mosaic Museum is located in the south of the Blue Mosque, within the mosque complex. The museum was built to include a partially intact mosaic pavement in the northeastern part of the portico of the Byzantine Empire Grand Palace. The Great Palace Mosaics, dated between 450-550 A.D., have been uniquely handcrafted. The white background that constitutes the background is processed in the style of fish scale. Religious subjects are not encountered in mosaics under the paganistic influences, rather, topics were taken from daily life and nature depicting an idyllic, mythological atmothpere. [36] These include scenes of a lizard-eating griffon, elephant and lion struggle, breastfeeding of a mare, a child who carries a goose, a goose milking man, a child feeding a donkey, a young girl carrying a test, a bear eating an apple, and a hunter tiger struggle. [24]

The Great Palace Mosaics Museum was opened in 1953 under the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, and was connected to the Hagia Sophia Museum in 1979. In 1982, the restoration and conservation of mosaics were initiated in accordance with the project, which was prepared within the framework of a protocol signed between the Ministry of Culture, General Directorate of Monuments and Museums, and the Austrian Academy of Sciences, and the works of restoration were completed in 1997.

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17. Hagia Thekla Church (Atik Mustafa Paşa Camii / Cabir Camii)

The original structure of this historical building, which is also called Cabir Mosque with the belief that the grave of Hazret-i Cabir was here, is an old Byzantine church. In the area between the land side of the walls and the Golden Horn in the northwest corner of Istanbul, it remained inside the Ayvansaray district.

Although there is no exact information on the date of its construction, some researchers state that it was built in 458 by the Byzantine Emperor Leon Flavius ​​I. There is no exact information about the name of the church. However, in some sources it is referred to as St Petros and St Marcos Church. In some sources, the church was built by Princess Tekla IX, the daughter of Emperor Teofilos in the 19th century, and it was named Hagia Thekla Church.

Patriarch Constantine, who wrote a collective work of Istanbul’s Byzantine antiquities, shows it as the church of the apostles Peter (Petros) and Marcus (Markos) in his book, published in 1846 in French (Greek first edition 1824, 2nd ed. 1844). This theory was repeated in certain books on the ancient works and historical topography of Istanbul. According to the narration that is the basis of this hypothesis, two patriarchs named Galbios and Kandidos in the time of Leo (457-474) stole Mary’s dress (mafarion), which they learned that they were in a Jewish house. They brought the dress to Constantinapolis in 458 and in the Blaherna district. They built a church named Apostle Petros and Markos and put this holy dress in this small church. But when the Emperor learned this, he built the bigger Blaherna Church and carried the dress there. A great ceremony was held every year on July 2 in memory of acquiring this item there.

However, the church, which is the Atik Pasha Mosque, is very unlikely to be the building that the two patriarchs built towards 458. On the other hand, it is known that Tekla, the daughter of Emperor Teofilos (829-842), established a church and monastery in this region and died here by drawing this monastery, which was presented to the name of Aya Tekla from saints. Aya Tekla Church was repaired in 1059 by İsaakios Komnenos (1057-1059), who believed that Aya Tekla owes his migration to flooding with a big hurricane while returning from a war. We learn from the book of Anna Komnena, daughter of Alexios I (1081-1118), that this repair was a significant renovation.

This church, which is the Atik Mustafa Pasha Mosque, is a corner-walled type of a group of structures with a closed cross plan in Byzantine religious architecture. The cross-shaped space inside the building forms the corners of four cells on four sides. Above the square where four arms meet each other, there was probably a high-hooped dome with windows, during the Byzantine period. In the classical period of Turkish architecture, the dome with a windowless flat pulley is built. Meanwhile, the eaves line, which should have been bumpy due to the reflection of the inner body to the outside, was also changed flat since the arches were cut on the sides. In addition, most of the original windows were knitted and new windows were opened as evident from their jambs.

In the Middle Byzantine period, especially in the floor mosaic, the geometric motifs such as circles, squares, rhombuses formed with ribbons, and sometimes decorated with motifs such as plants, figures and crosses were widely used. [46] These patterns are considered a Middle Byzantine element. Pantokrator Monastery Church, today the floor of the Zeyrek Mosque has pattern but it is covered with wooden flooring. Along with this monument, the Zeyrek Mosque, Gül Mosque, Küçük Ayasofya and Atik Mustafa Pasha Mosque in Istanbul are structures of the Middle Byzantine period. [37]

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18. Vefa Church-Mosque / Molla Gurani Mosque (Vefa Kilise Camii / Molla Gürani Camii)

Vefa Church Mosque, located in Vefa district of Fatih, has been converted from a church to a mosque. The monument, which is thought to have been built in the Middle Byzantine period according to the plan type and construction techniques, has undergone major repairs recently. [46]

The church has a closed Greek cross plan. External narthex and side spaces were added to the building during the Palaiologos Period. The facade of this outer narthex is one of the most impressive arrangements of the period it was built. The facade, which is constructed with columns and arches and inspired by the palace facades of the period, has brickwork. [24]

Shortly after the Conquest of Istanbul, the church was turned into a mosque in the name of Molla Gürani, dedicated to one of the teachers of Fatih Sultan Mehmet. Molla Gürani soon became the first mufti of Istanbul, and the mosque was later known by his name. In this period, a grooved brick minaret was added to the mosque. In a fire in 1883, the mosque was partially destroyed but continued to be used. In 1937, a partial restoration was made and some mosaics were cleaned. [34, 37]

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19. The Church of Stoudios Monastery (İmrahor İlyas Bey Camii)

Studios Monastery Hagios Ioannes Prodromos (John the Baptist) Church-Imrahor Palace-Imrahor Mosque-Imrahor İlyas Bey Mosque is located in Yedikule, on Imam Aşir Street. Although the building is in ruins, it is the oldest religious structure in Istanbul. Only the walls have survived to the present day.

The Ioannes Prodromos Church was founded by the Eastern Consul Studios in 456-463, on a land owned by himself, together with a large monastery. The monastery and church, named after Studios, were used as an important religious center in the Eastern Roman Period, and the famous patriarchs of the time were educated here. The monks living in this monastery are called sleepless (acometoi) because they performed rituals day and night alternately without any interruptions. The real fame of the building begins with Theodoros Studites (798-826), who was later declared a Saint and became the chief monk here. The monastery, which hosted about 700 monks, has become the largest theology center of its era, and also the icons, miniatures and manuscripts prepared here have gained a great deal of reputation. Another significant aspect of this monastery is the struggles of Theodoros Studites and her monks against the Iconoclasm movement that have an important place in the history of the church. [24]

The internal regulations of the Studios Monastery and a kind of charity later became an example for all similar documents. In addition, the Byzantine Emperors worshiping in this church after passing through the Golden Gate continued until the Conquest of Istanbul as a Byzantine tradition. Time to time, the dignitaries of the Byzantine, who had fallen into a difficult situation, found refuge in this monastery again in order to save their lives. It was largely repaired in 1293 by Konstantinos Paleologos, brother of Andronikos Paleologos, during which the church was restored to its former glory and surrounded by thick walls. [34]

The church of the monastery, closed after the Conquest, during Beyazıt II period, was converted into a lodge and mosque by Imrahor (emir-ahur) Ilyas Bey, one of the prominent statesmen, towards 1486. A bath and shops were built in Langa to provide a flow around the building which was named Imrahor (emir-ahur) Mosque after this date. It is referred to as “Imrahor Tekke” or “Mirahur Tekke” in its sources. The tombs of those serving in the lodge, which is attached to the Sünbüli branch of Halvetism, are still in the garden.

The Imrahor Mosque was one of the largest mosques in the city during the Ottoman period, as well as an important center where famous calligraphers such as Seyyit Abdullah Efendi, Süleyman, Seyyit Hüseyin and Seyyit Hasan grew up. The mosque, which suffered great damage in 1782 Samatya fire. It was repaired by Selim Naziperver, one of the treasurer masters of Selim III (1789-1807). It is known that the building was repaired twice by the Chief Architect Mehmet Rasim in 1820.

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20. Myrelaion Church / Bodrum Mosque / Mesih Pasha Mosque (Bodrum Camii / Mesih Paşa Camii)

This monument is located in Melih Pasha District in Laleli, on Sait Efendi Street. It is a religious building from the Eastern Roman period. Romanos Lekapenos I (920-944) transformed his private palace built on the ruins of an existing church here, later into a monastery, named the building “Myralion.” The Emperor built a basement under this monastery to be used as a family tomb. His wife Theodora (died in 922), his older son Kristoforos (died in 932), and his daughter Helena (died in 961) finally buried in this family cemetery. Romanos II (959-963) had her sister Anna closed this monastery, where the princess completed her life as a nun. When Isaakios Komnenos (1057-1059) was deposed, his wife Katerina and her daughter Maria entered this monastery as nuns. Only a wall fragment has survived from this monastery belonging to the Middle Byzantine period. [34]

Architectural features of this church includes a closed Greek cross plan with four supports, widely used in Byzantine architecture from the 9th century. The main walls of the church, whose outer walls are built with a mixture of stones and bricks, are covered with a dome with a high and windowed pulley which are carried by four piers. It is thought that these pillars had marble columns in their places, later these columns disappeared after a fire. The dome in the middle supports four barrel vaults on all four sides. The naos is passed through the three-part narthex of the building. In the east direction, there is an apse with a half-round inside and a three-sided exterior and cells with clover plan on both sides of the apse. The walls of the building are supported by half round buttresses. At the same time, a mobility in the exterior architecture was provided by these buttresses. The windows of the dome, which was able to preserve its original form, were opened with stepped arches, with a wavy upper erasure. [24]

Later in the Ottoman Period it was converted into a mosque by Mesih Pasha, Grand Vizier of Beyazit (1481-1512). According to the Hadika, the building got this name because it has a basement underneath. Bodrum Mosque, which was damaged in the great fire in 1782, was devastated and not used for many years in the fire of 1911. [37, 42] The building was a coal depot for a period and a shelter for the homeless for a period. It underwent an unsuccessful restoration that was left unfinished in the 1950s. After 1965, the cellar under the mosque was cleaned by C. L. Sriker.

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21. Hagios Ioannes Prodromos en to Trullo Church / Hirami Ahmet Pasha Mosque (Hirami Ahmet Paşa Camii)

It is a small Byzantine building near the Fatih Mosque in Fatih’s Çarşamba district. It is in the middle of a small square bordered by Koltukçu and Beyceğiz streets on the edge of Fethiye street.

Although there is a long-established view that this Christian temple was the Hagios Ioannes Prodromos en to Trullo Church in the Byzantine era, its real name and exact date of construction are unknown. When the Pammakaristos Monastery and Church were allocated as Patriarch to the Orthodox patriarch in 1455 after the Conquest of Istanbul, this church was given to the nuns who lived here until now, so with some buildings around it, this place became a girls’ monastery church. The name Trullos, which meant “dome” at that time, caused some false assumptions about the dating of the building. Considering that the great religious meeting called Quinisex in the early centuries of the Byzantine period was held in a place called Trullos in 691, this event was later wanted to be converted to the small church, which was the Masjid of Ahmed Pasha. However, the current building is not too old in terms of its architectural style, and it is a structure that is small enough not to collect hundreds of congregation in metropolitan areas. It is also known that the place called Trullos is not a church, but one of the domed halls of the “Great Palace” of the Byzantine emperors. In terms of the architectural features of this small church, it is estimated that it might have been built in the 11th-12th centuries. The name Hagios Ioannes Prodromos en to Trullo also appeared in 1456 when this was the center of a girls’ monastery. [34]

Hagios Ioannes Prodromos Monastery and Church remained in the hands of the Orthodox for nearly 150 years after the conquest, and the Patriarch of the Pammakaristos Monastery in 1586 was terminated and the Church of Fethiye was converted into a mosque as Fethiye Mosque.

See collection items.

22. Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes / Eski Imaret Mosque (Eski İmaret Camii)

This monument is known as the Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes, meaning “Christ the all-seeing”. It is the only documented 11th-century church in Istanbul which survives intact, and represents a key monument of Middle Byzantine architecture. [34]

The Old Imaret Mosque, located on a steep hill overlooking the Golden Horn in the Zeyrek district of Istanbul, is a religious building from the Eastern Roman period. The monastery, which was supposed to be built between 1081 and 1087, was dedicated to Jesus (Pantepoptes) by the founder of the Komnenos dynasty, Anna Komnena.

From architectural perspective, the dome of the building, which was built in a closed Greek cross plan, covers a central dome with four bases and a dome with high pulley. Its apse (altar) extending in a corner is round from the inside. The interior and exterior narthexes (entrances) are covered with a cross-vault. There is no trace left from the monastery adjacent to the church. [24]

After the conquest, Sultan Mehmet II transformed the Pantepeptos Monastery into imaret and madrasah, and the church into a mosque. [40] The building, which suffered greatly from the fire of 1918, was neglected for a long time. The mosque gained its present appearance after it was restored by M. Architect Fikret Çuhadaroğlu in 1970s.

See collection items.

Works cited

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